Cristian Grases, teacher and IFCM Board member

Selecting literature for choral ensembles remains one of the most difficult aspects of the conducting profession. It is essential for the functioning and development of the group. In his book The Choral Rehearsal, James Jordan explores the subject and states that the:

 “decisions we make concerning the music we choose to teach, rehearse, and live with are some of the most important decisions we make for the vocal health, musical growth, and human growth of our ensembles.”

This process is never simple. There are many criteria by which conductors select repertoire: vocal abilities of the ensemble, musical difficulties present in the score, educational purposes that will allow the musical abilities of the group to develop, length of the work, thematic ideas in the program (including perhaps the presence of many different periods and styles, or a theme reflected in the texts of all works), the overall flow of the program using contrasts (slow vs. up-tempo, sad vs. happy, a cappella vs. accompanied, etc.), length of the set, acoustical considerations of the venue, personal taste, and even the make-up of the audience. However, all of these criteria aforementioned are subject to one common reality: the conductor needs to have a large group of works from which to select appropriately. The more works we become acquainted with, the larger our personal “choral library” becomes, and thus our selections are made from a richer and wider source. In other words, every conductor should eagerly search for opportunities to get to know more repertoire, because it allows the conductor to choose from a larger collection.

The purpose of this article is to offer our readers the possibility of becoming acquainted with an assortment of published works; in this case, specifically originating from Latin America and the Caribbean, and written for treble ensembles. Argentina is one of the countries that has produced most choral music for treble choirs in Latin America. The most important catalog is held by Ediciones GCC (www.gcc.org.ar). They have over 55 arrangements of folk songs from all over Latin America specifically written for treble voices by some of the most outstanding composers of the nation. Additionally, their catalog of original compositions for such ensembles is very rich and offers music of various levels. Some of my favorite works have been written by Antonio Russo (Canción de las Siete Doncellas, Venite Exultemus Domino, Canto al Sol, and Cuatro Canciones para Niños). Russo has the ability of writing music of many different levels of difficulty. Marcelo Valva’s Pedronianas and Dante Andreo’s Cuatro Alondras are beautiful four-song suites that are not too challenging and capture the regional flavor. Recently GCC has published award-winning original works by María Paula Gómez, Oscar Llobet, and Federico Neimark. In the US, Neil A. Kjos Music Company (www.kjos.com) has published some titles for treble voices in their Latin American Series edited by Oscar Escalada. Libertango and Guachi Torito are two of Escalada’s most popular arrangements.

Another important nation with an significant output of choral music is Venezuela. Here, composer Alberto Grau has dedicated immense efforts to create a new and extensive catalog of works for treble choirs of diverse levels of difficulty. His works are published by GGM Ediciones (http://alberto.fundacionscholacantorum.org.ve/Obras) and distributed by Earthsongs (www.earthsongschoralmusic.com). Among his numerous arrangements and compositions for treble voices, I would recommend Cruje-Silba; Como Compongo Poco, Yo ‘Toy Loco; Rumex Crispus; Kasar Mie La Gaji (ssaa version); A un Panal de Rica Miel; La Flor de la Miel; La Balada del Retorno with orchestral accompaniment, and his complex and energetic Como Tú. He has also published three important suites: Opereta Ecológica en Cuatro Actos, Los Duendes, and El San Pedro. Additionally, his compositions based on texts by Jesús Rosas Marcano are particularly appropriate for children’s choirs. Finally, the French publishing house Editions A Coeur Joie (http://edacj.musicanet.org) published Pata Pa´ca, which was a collaboration between Alberto Grau and Cristian Grases. Grases has published some popular arrangements through Earthsongs (María Pancha and Los Dos Gavilanes), Walton Publications (www.waltonmusic.com/index.php) (La Paloma), and Pavane Publishing (www.pavanepublishing.com) (Canto de Pilón); and has recently created a Latin American Series with Gentry Publications (http://gentrypublications.com) in which his fun Tottoyo is included. Other important Venezuelan works are included in María Guinand’s Latin American series with Earthsongs. Some of the most important are Mata del Anima Sola by Antonio Estévez, Duerme Negrito by Emilio Solé, and El Romantón by Francisco Muro and arranged by Miguel Astor. Finally I want to take advantage of this opportunity to mention the large and important catalog of arrangements and compositions for children’s choruses by Modesta Bor, which unfortunately has not been published yet.

Brasil is a nation of many treble choirs and a long choral tradition. Heitor Villa-Lobos’ As Costureiras, one of the classic Brasilian works for treble voices, is published by G. Schirmer (www.schirmer.com). Ernani Aguiar’s Sine Nomine et Sine Sensu and Salmo 150 are great selections for more advanced ensembles and are published by Earthsongs, which also has Carlos Alberto Pinto Fonseca’s lovely arrangement of Muie Rendera. Also, Santa Barbara Music Publishing (www.sbmp.com) has J. Edmund Hughes’ arrangement of Eu e Voce. Finally I would like to mention composer Eduardo Lakschevitz who works in Rio de Janeiro and has numerous arrangements. One of his most popular (and unfortunately yet unpublished) tunes is Sambalele. On the Pacific coast, Colombia’s Julián Gómez Giraldo has published some of his works through Hal Leonard (www.halleonard.com). Maquerule, Maximina, Juego a Que Me Quemo, and A Belén Pastores are all great fun and filled with the dance-like spirit of the Caribbean.

Speaking of the Caribbean, Larry Farrow’s Jamaican Market Place (Gentry Publications) remains a classic and beloved West Indies song. Boosey & Hawkes (www.boosey.com) published Chanflín and the catchy El Pambiche Lento by Tony Guzmán from the Dominican Republic, and also some of the works by Francisco Nuñez—originally from Puerto Rico— such as Misa Pequeña Para Niños, Cantan, and Four Spanish Lullabies. Haiti’s young composer Sidney Guillaume has been very active in recent years, and he has seven works for treble choirs of which Koudjay, Plakatap, and La Providence stand out. Finally, Cuba has a very active choral movement and has a very important choral output written by some of the finest composers in Latin America. Unfortunately, access to such works is very limited. The only publications I know of are Eleco Silva’s Cinq Chansons Folkloriques D’Guadeloupe edited by Kjos, and Carlos Abril’s arrangements of El Mambi and Ogguere published by World Music Press (www.worldmusicpress.com).

With time I believe that the choral community will have ever more access to quality repertoire from Latin America and the Caribbean. In the meantime, I hope this list provides the reader with new resources and titles that can enrich their programming in years to come.

Cristian Grases obtained his Masters Degree in Choral Conducting under Alberto Grau and María Guinand in Caracas, Venezuela, and his Doctorate in Choral Conducting at the University of Miami. He is an award-winning composer active as a guest conductor, clinician, adjudicator and pedagogue in North and South America, Europe, and Asia. He is a Board Member of IFCM and the chair of the Ethnic and Multicultural Perspectives Committee for the ACDA, Western Division. He is currently an assistant professor at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, USA. Email: cgrases@gmail.com

 Edited by Angelica Falcinelli, USA

By Jeffrey Sandborg, Director of Choral Activities and Wade Professor of Music, Roanoke College

 The Hilliard Ensemble: Interview with David James and Gordon Jones

Jeffrey Sandborg:  Are you both founding members?

David James:  I’m  the only one left of the original four.

Gordon Jones:  And I’ve been with the group since 1990.   Over twenty years, now.

JS: Does the Hilliard Ensemble comprise your full-time work?

GJ: There’s not time to do anything else.

DJ: As a group we occasionally do a master class and what have you.  None of us has a separate job; this is our bread and butter. 

GJ: We do up to a hundred concerts per year, plus recordings, plus various other projects, along with keeping up the website.

JS: With your heavy performance schedule, how often do you rehearse?

DJ: That’s difficult to answer.  We don’t have any set rehearsal patterns.  The best way to describe it is that we rehearse when we need to.

GJ: That’s very good for us because there’s nothing worse than rehearsing when we don’t need to.   We need to learn a lot of new music written for us so we arrange rehearsals for that.  However,  if we’ve got a period where we’re singing standard repertoire and we haven’t got anything new we’ve got to learn, then we probably won’t rehearse much, it’s as simple as that.

DJ: We don’t say, “we must rehearse this week,”  because the fact of the matter is that we do sing so many concerts that we tend to do our rehearsing and learning when we’re on the road.  With so much time together travelling, we find that this is generally enough and, so, when we’re at home, we try to keep rehearsals to a minimum.

JS: How many different programs will you cycle through in those 100 concerts?

GJ: We have quite a lot of regular, fixed programs.  There must be at least ten programs we do regularly, maybe more.  But on top of that there are a lot of one-off programs for festivals or other performances that have a special theme.  If we have a big, new work written for us then that’s an entirely different kind of program.  In all we get through an amazing amount of repertoire.

JS: Since you sing so much newly commissioned music, how would you describe your process of learning a new work?

GJ: The motto is, little and often. I think we’re happiest learning a new work when we’re on tour because it means we can spend maybe an hour on the piece every day in a hotel room, rather than try to meet up in, say, London.  To make a rehearsal worthwhile you’ve got to rehearse three hours and three hours on a new piece is too much. Your brain starts aching. We find that things fall into place much better this way.

DJ: It’s an extraordinary thing the way the process works and if you were to ask, “Why is that?” I can’t answer.  It seems to me that a little time is an amazing developer of music learning.  Something we might have looked at for an hour yesterday will seem easier today.  Strangely enough, this will almost always be the case.
GJ: Very often we’ll have difficulty with a progression in a new piece of music.  There may be just one chord that’s not working and you can’t get from A to C through B because B isn’t in the right place.  We’ll sometimes struggle with that for a little while.  It’s not necessarily obvious which of the pitches need adjusting.

JS: This occurred to me when I heard you in concert with Garbarek.  What if a piece slips a quarter tone and the sax comes in at what for him is still his fixed pitch?  Does that happen?

GJ: There are times when you have to negotiate with him, for example,  when his reeds aren’t behaving themselves.  You’ll hear that he’s playing very quietly and you’ll think to yourself, “Is he worried about pitch?”

DJ: A large amount of the time we’re able to stay in tune.  We know the important notes within the harmonies to keep absolutely right.  And Rogers (Covey-Crump) has such a fantastic ear for pitch.  You know that if you home in on what he’s singing, it’s going to be OK.  I repeat myself but it’s all a matter of listening, of knowing what a chord sounds like when it’s in tune.

GJ: I have to admit, we have preferences for keys. We’re not very good at singing in sharp keys.  I don’t know why certain preferred keys are most comfortable.

JS: When you’re working on a commission, do you include the composer in that process?

DJ: Not so often.  Normally, they’re not around but we find it works better when we work on it ourselves.  Maybe closer to the performance, and then maybe they can make some comment or adjustment.  On the whole we find this way to work better.  They trust us.  We’ll get as close as we can and it might satisfy them completely.  If we’re uncomfortable with anything, we can always get on the telephone or write an e-mail.

GJ: Sometimes, after looking at the score, you’re baffled because things are not immediately obvious. There may be notes we simply cannot sing!  Before the process begins we send out information on a piece of paper with all of our ranges on it and it’s amazing how many composers ignore it.

DJ: And we’re not so keen on receiving the score where it is so tightly marked with every bar having dynamics. When that happens there is very little for the performers to decide.

JS: So, when you get the score, nobody sits down, analyzes, makes decisions, plans a rehearsal? You just have at it?

DJ: Usually. When we get the new score we go through what we can in rehearsal.  At the first meeting it is pretty clear how much time it’s going to take, how difficult it is, and how we’re going to have to approach it.

JS: Do you have a coach or some other objective set of ears that might give you feedback on your overall sound?

GJ: No.  Sometimes I think I could see the point in that but other times I think it would be nonsense.  We have our ‘house style’ which is the four of us.

DJ: We think that Rogers is enough in terms of tuning. And for a cappella it would not be useful.  We’re very fluid in what we do and, therefore, someone from the outside wouldn’t quite work because at every performance we’d start to think what we’d been told and we’d lose that sense of freedom.

JS: I see from some of your recordings that you expand the ensemble for certain repertoire.  What’s the largest the Hilliards could be?

GJ: Eight, maximum.  We have a pool of friends who are fabulous singers and they are very happy to join us when we need them.  We don’t really go outside that circle because we like to sing with people who know how we sing.  Since we don’t have a conductor, someone who doesn’t know how we work can become quite nervous and might wonder, “What’s going on here?”  We don’t show them how it goes; you just have to guess.

GJ: It takes a little while for people to get used to working this way.  New people are quite often very uncomfortable at a first rehearsal.  We’re just expecting them to do what they feel like doing and we’ll react to it.

JS: What happens when you’re on tour and someone cannot sing because of illness?

GJ: We have some emergency three-voice programs, depending on who is sick.

JS: I wonder about these pieces you perform with saxophonist Jan Garbarek introduced with the Officium project? How did that come to be?

GJ: It came about through our record company, ECM, which has always fostered collaborations between its artists. It just happened that if we were going to have this sort of collaboration, Jan was the right person.  A wind instrument is much more vocal-sounding, as opposed to a piano which for us is difficult to work with.  First, because the piano is a percussion instrument and second because the tuning is crazy for us.

DJ: Of course we were apprehensive when we first met—no one knew what to expect.  I’m sure Jan felt the same way.  So the first meeting was a nerve-wracking experience.  Fortunately, at the first very meeting it was clear that there was common ground.  He somehow understood how we sang and felt comfortable to join in, and vice versa.  It didn’t seem so different from what we do.  And so, from the start both sides were reasonably comfortable.

JS: There seems to be a lot of this kind of ‘improv’ – that is, improvising over fixed-pitch choral works – going on in Sweden and Norway, and also the practice of using the space in creative ways by moving around. Did Gabarek bring these ideas from Norway?

GJ: Well, the moving around in space may actually have come from us.

DJ: I think that initially it took Jan some time to get used to the idea that he could move around, especially since he’d always been onstage with his band.  Suddenly, he thought, “Gosh, in the right building, this is good because I can create different colors.”

GJ: And then we tried to push the boundaries to see how far apart we could stand and still sing the same piece of music.

DJ: In the initial recordings Manfred Eicher, the producer at ECM, said, “Guys, why don’t you go to all four corners of the chapel and sing into the walls?”  We thought, “The guy’s completely mad.”  But somehow it worked—again, it’s the listening.  It’s like learning anything new, awkward at first and then normal after you’ve done it awhile.

GJ: Fortunately it was only an extension of what we were already doing because we work entirely by listening.  It was just a matter of having the confidence of singing with someone twenty meters away.

JS: Why do you think that audiences have such a strong response to this spatial music?

DJ: It is noticeable that people are most taken by our moving around and singing amongst them.  They can’t quite believe what is happening. Of course, it needs a decent building.  People suddenly feel that they’re part of the music. I’m surprised it’s not done more.

JS: Where does all of this music come from and how do you handle editions of so much rarely performed music? Do you make your own?  

GJ: Generally we don’t make our editions but just occasionally we have to.  There are all sorts of different ways of coming up with scores. The Armenian music we sang in our last concert was sent to us from Armenia because they were preparing a special new edition of the complete church music of Comitas (1869-1935) and they wanted us to sing some.  So that was a gift.  I might find stuff in libraries or on the Internet and all sorts of curious places.  Something I sang on my own the other night is written in Kiev chant notation.  It was the only version available so I had to find out how to transcribe it.

JS   Do you ever sing, for example, something like Brahms?

GJ   It gets very difficult, then, because in a four-part Brahms piece you’ll have a high voice, slightly lower voices, then a lower voice, then the bass.  In our group, we have a high voice, two equal middle voices and the bass.  So Brahms requires a very different disposition than our ATTB.  To do Brahms it would mean that one of the tenors would have to pretend to be an alto and you’d probably have to transpose the piece because the other tenor is probably going to be too low.

JS: Does most of this early music conform to your forces, ATTB?

GJ: A lot of it but not all. There’s a whole slew of English church music that lies very differently, with high boys’ parts, for example. 

DJ: A lot of it is determined by how we sing. We try to sing with a very straight tone most of the time and that suits well the Medieval and Renaissance periods, I think.  Our voices are not so naturally suited to the Romantic.

JS: What drives your programming now? Recordings?  Commissions? The marketplace?

GJ: Very often it’s got to do with a new acquisition.  We might get a piece written for us that’s so good that we see the possibility of a good program built ‘round it.  One recent program was done because of that.  We had a new piece by Roger Marsh, a setting of Dante, and I developed an all-Italian program to go with it.  It became a mixed program of early and contemporary music with an Italian theme.  Every so often we’ll think there is some music that needs doing, or else we’ve got something particular we want to record.

DJ: Mainly our programming is determined by things we like to do.  We don’t go by the marketplace.  And we’re not ones looking to see whose anniversary is coming up; that’s not our way at all.

JS: How did you come to specialize in early music?

DJ: I first started to sing when I came out of Magdalen (Oxford).  This whole early music movement hadn’t really started then and I briefly joined a group, The Early Music Consort of London, led by David Munrow (1942-1976).  David was blazing a new path. The interest in early music really started instrumentally.  It was only later the vocal came along.  He was the first who one day said to a few guys, “Look, shall we try some of the vocal stuff?”  I was invited to join in and so was Rogers, coincidentally. David was magnificent.  He quickly realized that the voice didn’t work quite so well with instruments so he wondered, “Why don’t we try a cappella?”  And we tried some Renaissance pieces and it was a revelation; we were completely bowled over.  Sadly, David’s life ended very tragically within six months of starting so we were left with a huge hole.

JS: Did the group thrive within the early music movement and then expand into new music?

GJ: The group has done new music from the very start.

DJ: With the very first concert, actually.  In those days record companies wouldn’t take much risk with contemporary music so, although we did it in concert, it wasn’t recorded.  The first time we came to the public’s conscious was with Arvo Pärt. That was through ECM.

GJ: The Hilliard Ensemble did the first performance of his Stabat Mater.

JS: What projects do you have on the horizon? 

DJ: We find there are still challenges with the small world in which we work.

GJ: And we have some new pieces being written for us.

DJ: There are pieces being written either with small chamber orchestra or for large orchestra which is quite exciting.  We’ve also got quite a nice project in a couple years’ time—we’re joining with a viol consort, Fretwork. We’ll be singing Orlando Gibbons’ The Cries of London and at the same time, we’re commissioning a new composer to write on the same text.  That’s the sort of thing we’re doing— but there’s no new ‘Officium’ on the horizon!

GJ: We also are working on a theater project, a piece called, I Went to the House but Did Not Enter by Heiner Goebbels.  We’ve done this piece a lot in Europe.

JS: What do you mean when you say “theater piece”?

GJ: It’s staged with costumes and it’s just the four of us.

DJ: It’s superb.  He wrote it specifically for us so we worked with him from day one.  We were very much part of the whole creative process.  Goebbels’ background is the theater but he’s taken a tremendous interest in music and he has a phenomenally wide, catholic taste for all types of music and theater.  He’s a visionary.  He can see things not many others can imagine.  And he can see what works and how to put things together.  That’s what he did with us.

JS: Is it recorded?

DJ: There might be a DVD one day.

Since its founding in 1974 The Hilliard Ensemble has been at the vanguard of both the Early Music movement while also performing and commissioning new works.  Consequently, its vast discography has brought to light much important repertoire for audiences and conductors.  Comprising four male singers, David James, Countertenor, Tenors Rogers Covey-Crump and Steven Harrold, and Gordon Jones, Baritone, ‘The Hilliards’ maintain an ambitious performance schedule of nearly a hundred concerts every year.  The ensemble’s profile was raised with its immensely popular crossover recording ‘Officium’ (1994) with saxophonist Jan Garbarek. It combined Medieval and Renaissance motets with improvisation, and the collaboration between these artists continues to be fruitful with the most recent ‘Officium Novum’ released in 2010. Arvo Pärt is only one of the numerous living composers with whom the Hilliards have worked closely. In addition to being a rich source for further information about the ensemble, the Hilliard website has informative articles on tuning by member Rogers Covey-Crump. Web site:  http://www.hilliardensemble.demon.co.uk

An Occasional Series of ICB Interviews

Graham Lack

composer & ICB Consultant Editor

Joe Roesler, of the Calmus Ensemble

Graham Lack: Thank you so much for taking the time to talk to us. I hope that Skype was not too much an invasion of your privacy…

Joe Roesler: Not at all, it’s a pleasure, and good to see a face, too.

GL The first question sounds pretty simple, but might be a bit trickier than you think: when you rehearse, say, a largely homophonic piece, how do you get each chord in tune?  

JR Generally I think we examine each new harmony as it appears in the work and then let it grow and ripen. By ‘examine’ I mean that we subject it to various tools of the trade. Sometimes we hold it for much longer than written, so that it is extremely attenuated, and this allows us to ‘hear out’ the harmonic structure. Another way to get the chord right is to leave out a potentially problematic pitch. Often we have an intuitive feeling about which note in the chord is the ‘culprit’. We home in on it and quite quickly agree to try the harmony without that note. Then we know where the problem lies. Occasionally we build the chord up from the bass, each voice adding the appropriate note until the chord is in tune and balanced.

GL I’ll come back to the idea of ‘balance’ in a minute. So, if it is more often than not a single note in a chord that is causing the harmony to sound sour, how do you account for that at a theoretical level? What conclusions do you usually draw?

JR Most of the time it is the third of course. Frequently it lies too low or too high, and we are often able to carry out a quick fix. But there are times where the third seems to be behaving, and we need to seek elsewhere…

GL Like for an octave, a fourth, or a fifth?

JR Absolutely. Assuming we are dealing with basically tonal, homophonic music, the structure of the overtone series…

GL …based as it is on a fundamental, an octave, a perfect fifth, perfect fourth, major third and minor third et cetera…

JR quite…it is the structure of the overtone series that determines how a chord is built and how it functions. Usually there is a fundamental that is doubled somewhere above, then one note that forms a fifth or a fourth with its neighbours, and then just one note with the function of the third.

GL Are some notes less important than others?

JR For sure. The lower the note in the overtone series, the more importance it generally assumes in the chord.

GL Bearing in mind that you are a five-voice ensemble, if the fundamental occurs three times in a five-part chord and there is only one note acting as a fifth to that fundamental or as a fourth to another note – including compound intervals of course –, and there is but a single third, surely the octaves or double octaves above that fundamental would take on too much importance?

JR Of course, there is a huge danger that the chord itself would become very unbalanced, with some notes too loud for their own good. So it is vital that we each know the function of our own note, and what exactly it is doing in the chord. We need to know its relationship to the basic triad, its place in the overtone series, and what other notes it is strengthening.

GH Which brings us neatly on to overtones.

JR The stuff of music…

GL …exactly…so if a chord is in tune, why might it still sound ugly?

JR There may well be other faults in the way the ensemble is singing. The chord might be unbalanced, as I said just now, and a single note might simply be too loud. So we experiment with that. But there is also the question of the vowels we sing…

GL …where there might not be full agreement perhaps?

JR Yes, this is another problem all small vocal ensembles singing one voice to a part will encounter at one point or another.

GL So how do you deal with this issue and what happens exactly to the sound if some singers produce one vowel and others produce a different one at any one point in a piece?

JR It depends on the language in which we are singing, and this may vary between Latin, Greek, German, Italian and, recently, Croatian. But these pronunciation problems are usually quickly solved, as we have recourse to experts both within and without the ensemble. The real issue is that we all simply sing the same vowel.

GL And why is that so important?

JR Because every vowel, regardless of the language in which we happen to be singing, produces a certain sound colour, or ‘timbre’. We call it Klangfarbe in German of course. And if each singer produces a differently coloured vowel, just like when executing a painting – and I hope that is not too primitive an example – then the result will be disagreeable or just terribly muddied.

GL Like garish colours, or where it all results in a kind of brown?

JR Yes, that’s exactly what happens. We really must all sing exactly the same vowel simultaneously, and this vowel must be as pure as possible.

GL Any vowel is made up of two so-called formants. Or at least each vowel is to all extents and purposes governed by these two peaks in the signal, ones which are there for but a fleeting moment in time as each discrete sound becomes audible.

JR And this is where theoretical knowledge plays a part in our rehearsal, well, I guess any ensemble’s rehearsal for that matter. It really is vital to understand what vowel one is singing, whether or not it is still pure, and what is actually going on in terms of frequencies when singing it…

GL …formants being measured in milliseconds and in Hertz along two axes of the graph of musical time and space…

JR …yes, it’s interesting to learn about how an acoustic signal can be displayed on the page…and so it is these sound colours that make a chord sound nice or, quite frankly, unpleasant for the listener.

GL It’s all a trick of the ear of course, and once the formants have appeared, and almost immediately disappeared, we only think we are still listening to the same vowel, even when what is left over is a sinus tone.

GL But to return to intervals and the harmonic series. The seventh – be it major or minor – played an increasingly important harmonic role in the history of music, especially from the late 19^th century onwards and throughout the 20^th.

JR Well, a seventh chord does seem to be one of those ‘obvious’ and somewhat overworked sounds. Composers still rely on it today. We call all added notes the ‘harmonic dirt’, just our little in-joke.

GL The major seventh chord can certainly liven up an orthodox passage, or indeed seem trite and almost embarrassing.

JR The trick is not to make too much of it…

GL …don’t milk it as it were…

JR …quite, generally, any added-note harmony we approach with a sense of caution, and put much less emphasis on notes which function as, say, an added sixth, an added seventh or a ninth or whatever.

GL Which proves the point that the higher up the harmonic series a particular pitch class is found, the less important its role in the harmony itself.

JR That is how we hear things in any case. Calmus has been singing quite a number of works by Harald Banter recently.

GL A pretty good name for a composer.

JR Why is that?

GL Because it means light-hearted and witty ‘chit-chat’ in English.

JR I see. You learn something new every day.

GL Where were we? Yes, I know, the ‘dirty’ notes in the harmony, and Banter…

JR …right. In his music, there is very often a minor seventh between bass and baritone, the two lowest parts, and we ended up calling this the ‘Banter octave’, because it seems to take on this function without ever actually becoming one of course.

GL So how does this affect the other singers?

JR It makes it hard for them, and it is quite off putting when one sings. The others are constantly striving to hear an octave in the low voices, but it is simply not there. The fundamental is just not doubled, nowhere at all! Life can be tough sometimes.

GL Talking about difficult things, what about enharmonic changes?

JR This is one of the real bugbears in a cappella singing with just one voice to a part. The harmonic framework of any piece we sing is incredibly sensitive to the tiniest fluctuations in pitch within any chord. And nowhere is it more susceptible than where enharmonic change is used to get from one chord to the next. But we have no fixed rules in Calmus and examine each case as it comes along. Sometimes we need to let the fundamental of one chord become the major third in the next – but only where it is the same pitch class, and sometimes we are able to shift what was a fundamental note in one chord up or down so it takes on a new role in the next harmony, but only as long as there is neither an immediate unison relation nor octave equivalence.

GL The work of Euler comes to mind of course.

JR Gosh, yes, and one could spend the day just marking pitches that need to be inflected upwards or downwards.

GL But you do acknowledge that his system can be of immense use?

JR Of course, but there is the danger that an entire work ends up a long way from home, either on the flat side of things or the sharp.

GL I hope the readers have not lost us here, it’s probably best to ask them to go and Google him or whatever…

JR …oh sure, Euler is certainly worth reading. Just make sure you can still see the wood for the trees!

GL That’s my experience too, read him, think about it, and apply his ideas in just one rehearsal, to get singers to think about the role their notes play in passages of extreme enharmonic change. After that, put it behind you and trust your ear, otherwise nothing will ever sound in tune again!

GL Finally, and to leave music theory for a minute, how would you describe the overall atmosphere of a Calmus rehearsal?

JR I think there are two watch-words, things which anyone present would connect with our work: time, and intensity.

GL Meaning?

JR That we have the luxury of time itself, and we are able to bring large amounts of this valuable commodity to the rehearsal. Good music-making takes lots of time. There is no way around that. Also, we talk a lot about the ‘intensity’ of the performance and the sound we are making. This is a key idea and describes well the way we sing…it is no trade secret really.

GL And what happens in rehearsal when you learn a new work?

JR We talk a great deal, and we talk a great deal about ‘intensity’. This is not a waste of time. The time that outsiders might think we are losing is time that gets paid back to us further down the line. As for ‘intensity’, this is I suppose a largely ephemeral idea, but in practice it turns out to mean just how much each singer contributes to the overall sound. This is our hotbed of new ideas. And this is how we arrive at our interpretations, ones we feel that make Calmus and the Calmus sound special.

GL It’s not like working in a small chamber choir then?

JR  Quite the opposite, we all have a chance to contribute, and while there will be many smaller choirs out there, ones in which contributions and interpretive ideas from the members are welcomed by the conductor, some decisions will favour the few, and some the many. So, all I can say is that we bring time, use time, rely on time, and try to gauge the intensity with which we control our own performance within an ensemble…

GL…one where a single voice sings a single part…

JR …where one voice has its very own part. It’s a luxury I know…

GL…but one which other, larger groups and choirs might find time to indulge in…

JR My thoughts exactly.

Peter Philips, of the Tallis Scholars

Graham Lack: This will sound like quite a simple question, but one which reveals how different polyphonic music can sound when sung by a vocal soloists, a large ensemble or a small chamber choir: how would you explain the basic difference between singing a work with just one voice one to a part and with more than one singer per part?

Peter Philips: The greatest difference is between singing one to a part and two to a part, after that the disparity decreases with the numbers involved. With one to a part, the ensemble should be really good, since all the singers are closely in touch with each other. With two, the sense of ensemble should still be good, since the two voices on each part are right next to each other. The problem of balance and coordination with three or more voices to a part arises because two singers are not standing next to each other, and thus cannot react immediately to what the other voices on the line are doing. Actually I generally consider two voices to a part superior to one to part because two singers can stagger the breathing, and sing long lines legato without there being any apparent breaks, which is inevitable with only one singer holding the line. This legato does not really apply to a lot of secular music, but it is essential to the big antiphons and mass-settings of the sacred repertoire.

GL What issues arise with this kind of performance and how do they relate to performance practice?
PP Simply put, one voice to a part should yield the best tuning, but not the best blend. Two voices should yield excellent tuning, since everyone is closely in touch with each other, and very good blend, since each pair is obliged to listen to the neighbouring voice all the time, and this in turn makes it easier to intermingle within the whole group. A solo voice per part will inevitably have timbres that stick out. It is probable that three or even more voices to a part will give good blend, but in my experience the blend rapidly becomes ill-focussed. At the end of the day it is not a very exciting kind of blend, too amorphous. But I do accept that three or four voices could blend well, given the right mentality amongst all the singers, and a not too reverberant building.

GL As for general musical style, what approaches do you take?
PP We only ever sing Renaissance music, with one or two modern composers mixed in when they have either written for us, or I think their style suits our kind of programme. Arvo Part’s music falls into the latter category, and John Tavener’s in the former.

GL What are your thoughts on using all male voices without countertenors, male voices with countertenors, mixed voices with altos but without sopranos, and mixed voices SATB?
PP We always go on stage with a basic SATB choir, which can then subdivide for a piece or two. We hardly ever sing with tenors and basses alone. We always sing with men and women mixed. 

GL Is there anything else you would like to say? I’m sure ICB readers are open to all kinds of advice.  

PP The only other thing to mention in the matter of blend and general detail are the acoustics of the building. The general public hails reverberant churches as ideal spaces in which to sing. Actually they can destroy polyphony, which relies entirely on the kind of detail one finds in chamber music for its interest. In very reverberant acoustics such music can blur into a succession of not very interesting chords. It also makes it much harder for the singers to hear each other, and so agree on an interpretation. Very dry places can be hell for the voice, but some of the drier ones at least create the circumstances in which a sensitive and interesting performance can take place, where the singers are fully in control of what they are doing. My favourite venues for sacred polyphony are modern symphony halls, where the acoustician has produced a clear and rounded basic sound.

Ildikó Ferenczi Ács

choir conductor & teacher

As a choir conductor, I often watch teachers conducting their choirs. When listening to choirs or seeing teachers conduct, one can ask, “Why is it that one choir is more successful than the other, even if the potential of the choirs is nearly the same?” Why is it that the audience enjoys one performance better than the other? The answer is usually hidden in the personality and qualification of the conductor. The skills involved in successful conducting are: using the arms and hands to clarify the music, beats, style, character, mood and phrasing; eye contact and facial expressions; precise upbeats and beats.

Using the arms and hands to clarify the music

Training of choir conductors is a very complex process. There are many books and DVDs about conducting techniques from which we might understand and learn lots of movements and conducting gestures.

When I have the opportunity to evaluate the work of choirs (exams, competitions), I always try to sit on the left side of the room, to follow with attention the left hand of the conductors. Many directors use the left hand to mirror the movements of the right hand most of the time. This means in most cases no added value to the music; on the contrary, the music sounds toneless and at times apathetic. The reason is mostly not knowing what to do with the left hand.

The size of the beats depends on the passion; on the tempo and character of the music. Unvarying and equal beats lend static and monotony to the music, and occasionally break up the musical movement. The beats become audible.

A choir conductor has to know that the choir will sing the way it is being conducted. In other words, the singers will do as much as the conductor expects them to do, as much as the conductor shows them.

I often say to my students that the choir is the mirror of a choir conductor. Sitting in the audience and watching only the back of the director, I always feel and know from the way he or she gestures, what the eye contact and facial expressions are like. A viewer can follow and understand the musical events on the one hand from the eyes of the singer, and on the other hand, from experiencing the sound. It is more exciting when somebody cannot see the performers, and can only hear the voices (i.e. listening to a CD). A listener can sense the circumstances of the recording and can feel the mood of the performance. One can say “sterile” when the sound recording is over-concentrated or orderly. It sounds perfect, but not live – a musical performance can be really enjoyable only when the character and the mood are sensible and audible.

The skill of hearing the music internally; the feeling, image and musical expression – next to the conducting technique – are characteristics of the well prepared, well trained choir director. Conductors must be able to inspire and motivate the singers, and be creative. They have a background in music theory, score reading, harmonic hearing, vocal production, interpretation and teaching. And they are also knowledgeable in various musical styles and are often piano accompanists. A good conductor also has to be a good singer and know rules and techniques that make a vocal performance enjoyable.

Naturally there are also books about singing and choir voice training. But the close connection between the singing technique and conducting technique is not normally included in choral conducting teaching curriculums. The size and the force of beats, the poise of the hand and fingers determine the quality of the sound. There are many factors influencing the types of the beats, such as the size of the choir, the number of the voices, the structure of the composition, the range and register, the rhythm, the tempo, the content of the lyrics, the message of the piece, the dynamic and sounds of the text etc. The two last parameters are especially important and delicate areas of choir conducting work.

Dynamics

Beginners, when they are ready, can conduct a choral work and start rehearsal with the choirs. They often say to the singers: “Piano, piano” or “Look at the music, there is a forte” – and the singers will not sing intensively enough or will even strain … I teach my students to tell the singers “how”. The words piano and forte are only graphic characters (symbols); they help to explain the composer’s conception. If somebody can translate the musical notation to music (musical experience) with his/her inner hearing, that is to say that he/she feels the music, he/she has to know how to explain to the singers how it should sound; how to create the sound and how to perform the music.

In the case of the piano sign, for instance, a choir director has to define how to interpret the “p” melody, or rather how piano has to sound. Singing quietly could express sorrowful, sad, intimate music, but also fear, joy, love etc. It is the same with the “f”: singing loudly, even more keenly, intensively, energetically – singing fury, passion, majesty, or with exultant, joyful musical expression. Consequently, the good choir conductor tells the choir not what is to be seen in the note, but how to express it.

Sounds provided by the text

Choral pieces work generally with lyrics. The elements of the lyrics are vowels and consonants. They provide very important parts of the sonority of a text. A good poem is full of good sounds and helps the singer in the correct voice production. If you choose a work, first check the text of the poem – choose good prose. The choice of helpful sounds is half the success. What does “helpful sounds” mean? These are sounds which excel in using the correct formation place for singing and which need short energy releases. They could be, for instance, p, b, m – the voiced bilabial consonants, and the v, f – the labiodentals, and could also be the d, t, n, r, l, s, z – the alveolar consonants. The other consonants do not really help the voice to resonate in front. The fullest vowels are i and e, but a sounds better (more intensive). It follows that a good text consists of sounds which are formed with the same tone and in the similar place – mostly in front – of the cavity of the mouth.

By conducting, a director should know how to form the vocals starting the melody or the piece. The beats have to be different in every situation. Four components take part in the moving form: beginning a word/syllable, for instance, with a vowel (like alleluia) there are many beat types according the tempo, dynamic and meaning of the text.

This is a very short but extremely significant movement in conducting that is used at the beginning of every piece of music, at the beginning of new sections of a piece, and every changing section during the music: the upbeat.

The process of the good upbeat is:

• standing in front of the choir, concentrating and raising the arms to conduct;
• waiting for a moment till every singer and the accompanist or the instrumentalist(s) are ready to begin – no movement by the conductor, with everybody concentrating;
• the 3 phases of the upbeat:

1) The preparatory beat is an arm motion upwards just before the first beat of music,  that is, movement upwards from the starting point – in time, the longer part of the upbeat: nearly the full time.

2) Turning point: the dead-point before the falling of the arm.

3) The first beat, i.e. the downbeat, is the moment when the voice starts sounding – in time, very quick.

The upbeat tells the singers when and how the music is about to begin. The gesture must be given in the same character, mood, dynamic and tempo of the first phrase, attended to at the first vowel or consonant of the piece. The upbeat allows the choir to take a breath and begin singing together. This movement is bound up with the singing technique, with breathing and phonation.

Voice training from posture and breathing to the forming of vocals, tone quality and articulation, is a very important part of choral singing. The conductor should be a very well trained singer also. It is not enough to hear the mistake or to observe the problem. It is not enough to tell the singer if something is wrong, that it is not good enough or does not fit the style – a good conductor tells “how”. Conductors should give instruction in creating and realizing the correct way. They should know the elementary functioning process.  

Breathing

It is important to know that there are differences between breathing for life and breathing for singing. Phases of breathing for singing are:

• breathing in (inhalation)
• setting up controls (suspension) – this is special for singers
• controlled exhalation (phonation)
• recovery – not relevant for this topic

(Source of illustration: http://www.johngull.co.uk/Anatomy%20of%20the%20voice.htm)

The inhalation and exhalation times for life are nearly the same (1:1), whereas the inhalation phase for singing is quicker and the quantity of air inhaled is greater than in natural breathing. The exhalation phase is controlled and slower. The time bears a relation to the length and intensity of the sung melody. Between the ‘in’ and ‘out’ phases there is a very brief period for the preparation of the phonation. Phonation takes place when the air rushes out of the lungs through the trachea and the vocal chords begin to vibrate. When the movement of breath meets precisely with the closing of the vocal folds, an ideally phonated pitch is sounded. This needs to be practised and learned by the singer, developing a conscious mechanism.

Contraction: the exhalation and phonation work together in the same (3) phase.

The fourth, recovery phase is a brief moment where the muscles involved in breathing and phonation relax.

The three phases in the context of upbeat and singing:

Not only at the beginning of singing is the breathing important – it is the foundation of the whole singing technique, of voice training, and it is essential in choral work also.  A choral director should know where the choir breathes – even between phrases – and know how to enable the singers to do this together.

In teaching choir conducting technique, the most important, basic movement is the upbeat. A frequent fault found with beginner conductors is the lack of energy given to the downbeat. This is too late and does not give anticipatory information for the singers. When the music begins on a beat of a measure, the preparation beat itself will usually be one beat before the first sounded note. This movement might be explained by the teacher, read from books or practised in the mirror. However, together with knowledge of the physiological factors, the simplest way of communicating this is to breathe. Always breathe silently with the preparatory beat. Always breathe with your singers. The movement will be precise and the sounds perfect. The choir will always be with you.

Bibliography:

• Ferencziné Ács, Ildikó: Hangképzés az iskolában. Bessenyei György Könyvkiadó. Nyíregyháza, 1997.
• Lamb, Gordon: Choral Techniques. Online: http://cnx.org/content/col11191/1.1/
• Párkai, István: A kórusvezénylés alapjai. Veszprém, 1994.
• Russell, Robert: Vocal Training in Chorus. A Presentation for the American Choral Directors Association, February 2003. Online: http://www.usm.maine.edu/music/choralvocaltraining/

Edited by Gillian Forlivesi Heywood, Italy

Stuart Hinds, composer, singer, choral conductor, and teacher

The last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the popularity of overtone singing in its various forms, and choral music is no exception.  More new works for chorus with overtone singing are being composed and more choirs are giving it a try.   Overtone singing is being recognized now as a true musical genre that will continue to grow in acceptance as more people are introduced to it.  Overtone singing may embrace a wide variety of musical styles and expressive possibilities, and it has a powerful potential for physical and intellectual benefit as well.  Overtone singing sounds good, and it is good for you.

The purpose of this article is to de-mystify overtone singing and to offer compelling reasons for choir directors to try it with their choirs.  Overtone singing is much more than a mere special effect.  It is a powerful means of expression that choirs can take advantage of.  It is also a useful tool for voice development and ear training.  It is easier to sing overtones than some directors might think, and students enjoy it very much.

The references given at the end suggest resources for information on topics that cannot be included within the limitations of this article:

• the historical background of overtone singing and its current uses (Tongeren)
• a scientific explanation of what happens vocally in overtone singing (Levin/Edgerton)
• a method for teaching the technique to a choir (Hinds)

There is also a list of recommended compositions for choirs using overtone singing for the first time.

Before proceeding, a brief definition of overtones and their function in music is in order. Every musical note is actually a composite sound consisting of a fundamental tone, which is usually the pitch we perceive, combined with a number of additional pure tones above it called harmonics or overtones.   These overtones are not normally heard individually, but they are important elements of the sound.  The greater or lesser prominence (amplitude) of some of the overtones over the others determines the timbre, or tone color, of the note.  It is the overtone structure, called the ‘spectrum’, which makes the sound of each voice or instrument unique and identifiable, and allows us to distinguish the sounds of the various musical instruments and also to recognize individual voices.  The significance for singers is that overtones are the very basis of vowels, timbre, resonance, and intonation.

The term ‘overtone singing’ refers to techniques that allow a singer to isolate one of the natural harmonic partials in the overtone series of a sung fundamental pitch, thus making audible two discrete pitches simultaneously.  This phenomenon is accomplished by altering the shape of the vocal tract in the same way one uses vowels in speech or singing.  In the traditional overtone-singing styles, the singer typically creates a drone-based musical texture with a melody of overtones over an unchanging fundamental pitch.

However, the overtone singer is not necessarily limited to a static fundamental note.  The author has developed a truly contrapuntal style of singing, vocally producing two musical lines simultaneously – the fundamental line and the overtone line.  One can move both fundamental and overtone lines independently, as long as each note of the overtone line is a natural harmonic of the current fundamental pitch.  More and more singers are beginning to sing polyphonically, and this ability can certainly be exploited in choral music.

Figure 1 provides a notated example of an overtone series on the fundamental pitch G in men’s range.  The interval pattern of the overtone series is always the same relative to the fundamental pitch.  Remember that these are not exactly the same as equal-tempered pitches: the octaves and fifths are perfect (i.e. do not beat), the 5^th partial is a big major third, and the 7^th and 11^th partials are much flatter.  As one progresses beyond the 12^th partial, the intervals become progressively smaller.

(Click on the image to download the full score)

Audio files of the author singing an overtone series on G and a short excerpt of polyphonic overtone singing can be heard at www.stuarthinds.com on the Sound Clips page, along with recordings of several compositions that use the technique.

Overtone singing is perfectly natural and safe for the voice when done properly.  Some singers who practice Tuvan/Mongolian ‘throat singing’ techniques may apply muscular pressure in an attempt to suppress the fundamental in favor of the overtones, but it is possible to produce overtones without any such stress, and teachers should monitor their students to make sure no vocal abuse is taking place.  All the vocal tract manipulations in overtone singing occur in the resonating areas of the vocal tract, not the phonating area.  The types of vocal tract shaping used in overtone singing are the same as those used in traditional singing when changing vowels, registers, or timbre. None of the adjustments of the vocal tract used in overtone singing is inconsistent with good ‘open throat’ singing.

There are several advantages in using overtone singing with a choir. First, there is the potential benefit of overtone singing relative to improvements in normal singing, particularly the effects on vocal resonance and increased understanding of the relationships between overtones, vowels, resonance, and timbre.  Secondly, overtone singing contributes to better musicianship in general, as a result of training the ear in interval recognition and intonation.  (For more detailed information about these topics, see ‘Argument for the Investigation and Use of Overtone Singing,’ in the Journal Of Singing, Fall 2005). 

Consider also that overtone singing is a multicultural activity – an opportunity to learn about and celebrate the music of other cultures.  Overtone singing also adds variety to concert programs and to rehearsal regimes.  Singers will enjoy doing it and benefit from the experience.

The main reason for using overtone singing in music is of course the beauty of the sound.  That distinctive sound is both effective and affective; it can be a powerful means of expression.  When people hear overtone singing for the first time, the universal reaction is one of amazement.  With its otherworldly quality, it is easy to see how the sound of overtone singing is often associated with sacred utterance.

It should be emphasized that anyone can learn to sing in this manner.  The author firmly believes that any person who can breathe, phonate, and form vowels can perform overtone singing.  Moreover, one does not have to be either a virtuoso singer or a specialist in overtone singing to enjoy overtone singing.  In fact, most choral works with overtone singing do not call for a particularly high level of overtone singing technique.  As the genre continues to develop, a repertoire will be generated, including works demanding a wide range of skill levels.

Of course, if a choir is to have success with an overtone-singing piece, the director must be fairly secure in the technique.  Even if a clinician is hired to do a workshop session with the choir, the director must still do all the follow-up and should have some idea of what is going wrong if a student has difficulty.  For those who work in an educational setting, this might be a good summer holiday or semester break project.  You can learn the basic technique on your own using the video demonstration created by the author to accompany his article (see below).  Then, it is not that difficult to find a few minutes here and there to get in a little practice: in the shower, driving, waiting for an appointment or for your kettle to boil.  You will be amazed at how well you can do in a couple of weeks with just a few minutes of casual practice a day.

A complete lesson plan for teaching overtone singing to a choir can be found in the author’s article, ‘How to Teach Overtone Singing to a Choir’ in the Choral Journal (USA), October 2010 issue.  A video demonstration by the author that accompanies the article is posted at www.stuarthinds.com.

You are likely wondering how much can be expected from singers who have just learned the basic technique.  Certainly their abilities will be limited, but the choral effect of many voices together makes it possible to get excellent results with beginners, especially experienced choral singers with good basic vocal technique at the outset.  In general, singers should not be expected to have much control over the precise overtones produced, so there will be a certain amount of indeterminacy, and that fact should be taken into account in compositions to be performed by singers of limited overtone-singing skills.  The best effects can be achieved in musical situations where some indeterminacy is actually a desirable quality. 

A few examples follow, ones which demonstrate some of the ways overtone singing may be effectively used by choirs new to the technique. In all these compositions, an attempt was made to incorporate and integrate overtone singing in musical and meaningful ways. They show how various overtone-singing techniques have been employed for purely musical effects such as timbre contrast, dramatic gesture, and the creation of texture.  Additionally, some ways overtone singing can be evocative of the text (or better, evoked by the text) are presented.

Consider the composition Autumn Moon (SATB and piano, with some divisi).  Most of the piece has no overtone singing at all.  There are two brief spots where overtone singing is used as text painting (at ‘or when it hides for a moment behind a passing cloud’ and ‘I hear the song of the wind in the branches’).  In these passages, the singers are given only the fundamental pitch and allowed to improvise on the partials that work best for them, thus creating a subtle but complex and colorful texture.  Overtone singing is prominently featured only in a passage where the melody and harmony are taken over by the piano while the choir creates a harp-like texture of overtone glissandi, with the women’s voices alternating and overlapping with the men’s [Figure 2]. The singers need not be precisely in unison on the partials of these glissandi as long as they create the desired shape, ascending or descending, at the proper time metrically. The small circle over the notehead indicating harmonics is a notational technique found in scoring for strings.  The vowel /u:/ is specified to produce a lower partial as a starting point for the glissando, not to be sustained.

(Click on the image to download the full score)

It is common for the overtone singing in a choral piece to consist of no more than a given fundamental pitch and the direction to bring out overtones, ad lib., but it is easy to do more without raising the difficulty level.  Simple verbal instructions can be used to suggest more specific musical effects.  In one passage from Winter (SATB unaccompanied), singers are asked to concentrate on the highest harmonic partials possible to illustrate the imagery of freezing cold in the lyrics.  Further, the lyrics themselves are used to generate overtone-singing effects.  In the bass part, measure 45, diphthongs in the words are elongated to produce glissandi of overtones, descending – ‘fierce’ and ‘fearful’ (/i3/) and ascending – ‘voices’ (/oi/). 

(Click on the image to download the full score)

In this piece for two-part children’s choir, the /n/ is used in alternation with overtone singing to create an on/off effect of the overtones.  The use of the vowel /i/ means that high-pitched harmonic partials will be produced.  Again, the descending glissando gestures are notated graphically.

(Click on the image to download the full score)

Though the lower partials of any fundamental pitch are triadic, overtone singing is not limited to tonal or modal music.  Any type of chord configuration can still be used in the fundamental part.  In this passage from Meeres Stille (SATB unaccompanied), a whole-tone cluster is constructed without overtones and then overtones are added in a dynamic gesture.  The /u/ vowel will produce low-pitched overtones.

(Click on the image to download the full score)

The following excerpt from The Wind (SSA unaccompanied) uses overtone singing as a rhythmic feature and a celebration of the ethnic origins of overtone singing in central Asia.  The idea comes from Tuvan throat singing, where the dotted rhythm is used to represent the sound of horses galloping.  In this case, specific partials were notated, but they may be treated as indeterminate because it is the rhythmic neighbor-tone gesture that is of greatest importance here.  Other passages in this work use overtone glissando shapes to represent the whistling wind.

(Click on the image to download the full score)

One should not think that overtone singing in choral music is limited to these types of textures.  There are more and more works being composed that call for a higher level of overtone-singing skill, requiring control of the partials being sung and even polyphonic singing.  And greater skill allows a greater range of musical expression.

Directors of choirs of all ages and singing ability are strongly encouraged to consider trying overtone singing.  It is easier to sing overtones than some directors might think.  The basic technique can be taught in just a few minutes, and it does not require much rehearsal time to make good progress.  Overtone singing can easily be incorporated into the warm-up regime, and is an outstanding platform for the teaching or improvement of vocal resonance and intonation.  The time spent on overtone singing will pay dividends in improved awareness of the voice, increased musical cognition, and the enjoyment of singing. 

To help you get started, a list of suggested compositions for chorus with overtone singing is given below.  This information is primarily targeted at directors who have never used overtone singing with their choirs before.  These works have been recommended because they offer a good chance of success and choir members have enjoyed singing them.  The principal selection criterion for these pieces was that they be appropriate for choirs using overtone singing for the first time.  This means that singers are not expected to bring out particular harmonics or change the fundamental while singing.  The result of the overtone singing is therefore somewhat indeterminate, but that type of texture can be used to good effect in certain musical situations, as these works attest.

Ben Allaway – Walking Songs (2002, Thresholds)

Vaclovas Augustinas – Anoj puséj Dunojélio (Hinshaw)

Stuart Hinds – Autumn Moon (2004, Hofmeister)

Stuart Hinds – Winter (2005, Hofmeister)

Sarah Hopkins – Past Life Melodies (1991, Morton Music, several voicings available)

Knut Nystedt – Immortal Bach (1988, Norsk Musikforlag)

Peteris Vasks – Piedzimšana (2008, Schott)

References

Hinds, Stuart:  An Overtone Experience/Eine Oberton Erfahrung, Traumzeit, 2012.

– ‘Argument for the Investigation and Use of Overtone Singing’,  Journal of Singing, Fall 2005.

– ‘How To Teach Overtone Singing to a Choir’,  Choral Journal, October 2010.

– ‘New Music for Chorus with Overtone Singing’,  Choral Journal, March 2007.

Levin, Theodore C. and Michael E. Edgerton: ‘The Throat Singers of Tuva’, Scientific American, September 1999.

Tongeren, Mark C. van: Overtone Singing: Physics and Metaphysics of Harmonics in East and West, Amsterdam: Fusica, 2002.

Approaching contemporary choral music development – with open ears and alert minds

Stephen Leek, IFCM Vice President and composer

We all know that a choral program needs to embrace many musical, non-musical and technical elements. The healthy technical aspects of voice production and choral singing must be taught. The well-being of the singers must be monitored. Building a choral community that is supportive of its members must be nurtured. The skills in the “Art” of Choral Singing must be shared.

However, one of the most important ingredients to building a healthy choir is often overlooked. That is, the development of a courageous approach to creativity and composition within the choir – processes that actively involve singers, conductors … and composers.

Let’s face it, without composers, choirs would not exist. Without composers whose music looks to the future, choral music seriously runs the risk of becoming just another product of antiquity. Some would even suggest that without preparing for the future by nurturing a creative approach at every level of choral activity, choral music might indeed be a dying art form. There will always be people who will want to sing in a communal way, so I doubt that will ever happen, but this is an issue that needs to be addressed by all of us, now.

A common feature of the most distinctive and – some would argue – most successful choirs around the world is that they have, as a regular part of their choral activities, a conscious pursuit of creative engagement in some form or other. It is common for a choir that works regularly with compositional concepts to create a unique sound and identity for itself based on this creative process. I believe it is critical that all healthy choral programs have some form of active creative component, not only to keep choral music alive, but also because it has numerous long-term benefits for the choristers, the conductor, and the community in which the choir sings.

Writing choral music has different compositional challenges to that of writing instrumental music – some composers do it very well and some other well known composers do not. What is common to most composers of innovative choral music is that at some time in their lives they have sung in a choir … they know what it feels like to sing as part of the team … they know what courage it takes to sing collectively in front of an audience … they have a better understanding of what the voice can and can’t do – and, most commonly, these composers sang in choirs when they were young.

Some would say that composers (like conductors) can’t be taught, but can learn and grow through positive and inspirational experiences … when they are young.  Composers, like conductors, do indeed learn their Art and craft from experience, by doing it, by feeling it and by being inspired by it, most often when they are young.

So, if your choral program does not have a major creative component to it, then you, as conductor, are depriving your singers of the opportunity to evolve and develop in this way.  How then do we start to present creative compositional ideas to young singers in a non-threatening, yet meaningful, way?

Simple. You play – you play with sounds, you play with ideas, you play with anything vocal that comes into your head. You have fun, you laugh, you can be silly … I call it Playtime. Playtime can be part of your warm-ups, part of your rehearsal process and sometimes part of your performance practice. It can be part of the repertoire that you choose. Playtime encourages different ways of looking at the notions of choral singing. It stimulates the aural imagination. It can develop compositional concepts and ways of thinking and hearing without anyone even knowing that it is happening.

In warm-ups, make up simple patterns, encourage the singers to invent short phrases of sound rather than just singing stock scales and arpeggios. Sing short sequences in two parts at different intervals. Put two different sequences together – one after the other – on top of each other … Mix it up, be creative, be spontaneous, be surprising, be inventive, be funny, be courageous! In warm-ups throw sounds to the choir, have them catch and throw different sounds back at you – connect the physicality of sound with movement. If you are initially afraid of this sort of activity, have the choir simply copy you, then share the leadership around. Move on to ‘calls and responses’. Then, engage the compositional brain in a different way by requesting that the response must include a musical element from the call. Share the leadership around – let the singers become accustomed to making contributions to the process. Ask for ideas, try them out … very quickly you will discover that your choir is full of ideas. This process also encourages the all-important development of critical listening, and analytical skills – skills that are essential for the development of composers, and it encourages free-thinking in your singers outside of the standard musical boxes.

Remember, that if you are not prepared to do it yourself, you choir will not do it. Show your “Choral Courage” and throw yourself in.

In rehearsal, select a difficult passage out of one of your pieces and deconstruct it – isolate the elements of it, spontaneously make something new out of it, trust yourself. Create a texture, a musical gesture, or a sequence, or an ostinato, or a canon, or a sound cloud, or a fanning cluster … the list of possibilities goes on! Join several of them together … rehearse it, perform it. Above all, be brave and don’t be upset if things don’t work out as you expect … It is actually even better if your ideas don’t work because the singers learn from making mistakes, (indeed composers learn from making mistakes) and by doing so they will discover more about compositional processes, and not be so afraid of taking artistic and musical risks themselves.

When choosing repertoire try not to take the safe options, but rather select works that offer listening and compositional challenges to the singers, the conductor, and perhaps even to your audience. Take for example a very simple text and graphic notated set of pieces, Telling Tails

These sorts of graphic scores are great for any age (and there are many of them around) because they introduce to the singers the possibility that choral singing and choral music are not just about the notes, the rhythms and the dynamics, but also about inventing, about making things up, about taking risks, about trying things out, perhaps using some of the techniques that you have discovered – free singing, clusters, textures, dramatic contexts … and a raft of other extraordinary possibilities.

To take the ideas further, why not introduce the concepts in a notated form. Split Point  is a small piece for young singers about a well-known lighthouse in Australia (available www.stephenleek.com).

Here, I wrote a very simple melodic line that goes through the usual motions of unison, and canon with an accompaniment … but then a boxed section appears where the singers perform the passage freely in their own time creating a textured cluster which resembles “a flock of seagulls hovering around the rotating light of the lighthouse”. Once this visual image is in place, the singers have no problem creating the required sound texture and overcome their fear of performing with such individual freedom and choice.

Later in the piece I use simple word painting techniques to suggest the running up and down of the spiral staircase which winds its way up the inside of the lighthouse.  If you discuss the principles of word painting with your singers, they will very quickly begin to understand the important role of this technique in choral music, and the role it plays in connecting the music with the words.

Unlike instrumental music, the use of words in this way is a unique feature of choral and vocal music. The words and context of a piece are so important to choral music, and I find it frustrating hearing new works that negate this unique part of choral singing altogether by using no text, nonsense texts, or yet another generic Latin text – the sounds may be pretty but the context is almost meaningless.

To develop creativity further there are several different directions a choir director could take. The most obvious is for the singers to create, and then ultimately write, their own compositions. If you as a choral director don’t feel you have the confidence to initiate this process – why not invite a local or student composer from your community to help?  I guarantee that the composer will learn more about choral music than you can ever imagine … and they most likely will enjoy it and want to do it again!

Another less confronting route would be to choose repertoire for your choir that is adventurous in its spirit and is more contemporary in its techniques. Too often, I think, conductors choose repertoire that is too safe and too easy. The result of this is that the choir never really develops the skills that enable them to move more freely through repertoire from around the world, or to enjoy the choral developments that occur in new work. And, as I stated earlier, you are depriving your singers the opportunity of personally and artistically growing through composition and musicianship.

Within the framework of an indigenous Australian word, which means “the circle of life”, Riawanna is suited to any age of singer. It is a most useful piece in helping young singers identify the raw ingredients and essential materials of a work.  The process of making their own music out of the materials provided assists singers in understanding the construction process of a composition. It also helps them to understand that you do not need lots of ideas or materials to build a successful piece. Apart from the rhythmic component, this piece of any duration (or complexity) also explores basic harmonic singing techniques (which encourages mouth shape experimentation) and the exploration of choral color (which aids a choir’s development in every possible way – no matter what music they are singing).

How does all this creative playing translate into mature choral works for adult singers?

Adult singers can be introduced to contemporary music in many ways. Repertoire selection is the most obvious way. There are many, many contemporary works around now that gently ease singers into newer techniques and sounds. One such work is Kondalilla – a movement of a much larger work Great Southern Spirits (available www.stephenleek.com).

Kondalilla is a work for mixed voices of unlimited duration, the female singers freely sing given materials in an improvisational manner, yet in a carefully constructed form that sits on top of the structured male voice parts. This work evocatively captures the context of the Australian rainforest and the traditional spirits that lurk in the waterfall and in the still water of the stagnant pools … It is a favorite of many singers who will openly tell you that they don’t like ‘contemporary music’! I hate to tell them … but this is actually ‘contemporary music’.

Other movements of Great Southern Spirits offer different challenges to the singers and to the audiences, and the general response for this work is one of overwhelming excitement. These days contemporary music is as diverse as the composers who write it. With care, thought, and some preparation, any new music can be exciting, challenging, an adventure, and we should all be able to find something exciting and worthwhile in it, if we develop the tools to learn how.

Do we need to work with composers?  Yes we do. As choral musicians we need to embrace composers in every aspect of our work. Choral music composers are the creators of the sounds, the narrators of our emotions, the tellers of our stories. Composers and adventurous, creative composition is our future and indeed, the future of choral music. Composers come in all shapes, sizes and genders, and from all cultures. There is most likely a composer living near where you live right now.

The easiest way to engage composers in your community is firstly by finding out who they are and simply inviting them to your concerts. Composers are real people too and enjoy being welcomed into a musical community. Over time they may become so excited about being part of your community that they might even offer to write you a complimentary work … but be warned, you must be prepared to pay for good music: like everything in life, choral music composition is not free – composers have mortgages too! I really believe every choir should regularly budget for the commissioning of new work – just like you would budget for everything else to do with the choir – the rehearsal venue, the uniforms, the travel costs, the biscuits at tea-break etc. If you respect the livelihood and skills of a composer by paying them appropriately for their skill and talent, then they will, in turn, respect you and choral music.

Investing a portion of our annual budgets in the commissioning a new piece can be a risk – but it is a risk worth taking, and it is a risk we all need to do on a regular basis. “Be Brave, be Courageous!”

Here are a few basic steps we can all take to nurture composers and ultimately ensure a brighter future for choral music:

• Never use photocopied music without a license to do so from the composer or the publisher.
• Budget for the purchase of music.
• Always pay the appropriate fees for performing choral music to the performance collection agencies in your country.
• Seek out composers living in your area and befriend them.
• Budget for the commission of new work on a regular basis.
• Be courageous in your choice of composer – don’t always go for the safe and well worn options.
• Perform at least one new piece of choral music in every concert.
• Always invite the composer to attend the last rehearsals and the premiere performance.
• Always acknowledge the presence of the composer of a work in a concert.

What is the future of choral composition? I wish I knew. What I do know, however, is that we must take active steps now to prepare our singers, our choirs, our conductors, and our composers (when they are young) to be able to participate in whatever exciting music evolves in the future – and there are some very simple initial steps that can take choral directors down that road right now. And by opening our ears and keeping our minds alert to the wonderful creative possibilities of the Choral Art, we can ensure that there is indeed a bright future ahead.

Edited by Gillian Forlivesi Heywood

Antoni Miralpeix Bosch, teacher, composer and conductor

Music in the Air

The reach and influence of the virtual world now affects the real world. The internet and digital technology have invaded daily life, and have a similar transformative role as the invention of the printing press in the 15^th century, which brought with it a radical democratization of the transmission of knowledge. We are experiencing a revolution of incalculable dimensions, a paradigm shift that is just beginning, and the internet is at its epicenter.  Since its beginnings the net has evolved, and we are now in Web 2.0, which, according to Adell (2010), includes an increase in bandwidth to permit the flow of information, and an explosion in the quantity of information uploaded by users via YouTube, Blogger, WorldPress etc. Using these tools, users engage systems to communicate and interact among themselves.

Application software and documents now reside ‘in the clouds’ (Cloud computing, iCloud etc.) which is to say on the net. This signals the end of the concept of software and applications as products, and the beginning of the concept of software as a service, available at any time and place through a variety of devices. Users can easily become creators of content, and collective intelligence blooms through the participation of system builders.

Music at Any Time and Place

Late generation mobile devices like tablets and smartphones facilitate access to information and communication in any time and place in an easy and attractive manner, revolutionizing the ways in which music is heard, created, written, learned, and taught. The most recent creations of Steve Jobs, such as “the IPhone, IPod, and IPad will be remembered for their capacity to radically transform the way we work and enjoy leisure time.” (Beahm 2011) Touch screen tablets enable us to surf the web, listen to music, read magazines and newspapers, edit sound, record video, see pictures and scores, communicate via email, play games, watch television, and participate in videoconferences, all on a single device. The compact size and light weight, expanded battery power that makes cables unnecessary, and ability to enlarge or reduce the size of text or scores make these devices a phenomenal tool for a choir director or teacher of music.

Verbs and Nouns

According to Marc Prensky (2011:64), verbs are the “skills that students must learn, refine and control.” Teaching has to do with verbs, which do not change over time: thinking critically, communicating, decision-making, comprehending content, etc… Nouns are “the tools which students use to practice the verbs,” including traditional resources such as books, song collections etc.. and digital tools that are unique to the 21^st century such as Google, Wikipedia, IPad etc … The nouns are a means to an end, and unlike verbs are constantly changing at a faster and faster pace. In our training we can then focus on the verbs, and put them to use with varying nouns, which change with time. With this idea in mind, below I list twenty verbs that can be useful for choir directors and that I consider fundamental, with their corresponding nouns representing digital technology. It is an open-ended list, open to change and improvements. All the nouns have a common denominator: they are free (or very inexpensive), easy to find and use, and above all, useful.

CODA

Thanks to the internet and current technology, choirs have at their service a variety of learning and communication tools that support their work. I believe we must have a presence on the web to facilitate communication between singers and directors, a meeting place, either a website or a blog, where we can share experiences, texts, images, videos, schedules, and have forums for conversation and rehearsal aids. We can keep our archives in the clouds in order to use them where and when we want. This is ultimately a window to the real world.

* alternative to Grooveshark: http://comparitech.net/limewire-grooveshark-alternative

Translated from Spanish by Joshua Habermann, U.S.A.

Edited by Gillian Forlivesi Heywood, Italy

An Overview of the Acoustical Environment

Duane R. Karna

teacher and conductor

In my own singing, as well as in my work with choirs and vocalists, I have experimented with and discovered how different rooms’ acoustical principles affect the singer’s use of breath management, the choice of vowel modifications, the selection of tempi, various articulations, dynamic levels and intonation.

A live acoustic with good reverberation allows a singer to use the voice more intelligently in terms of healthy vocal production with a better sense of connected breath to the vocal tone.  The voice travels better in this type of acoustical environment, allowing for better decisions to be made by singers on how to best use their voice.

All of us have observed in our choral work and solo singing how a room’s particular acoustical properties influence our choices of vocal tone and timbre.  Often a live rehearsal or performance room brightens the tone, sometimes requiring timbre shadings and vowel modifications better suited to that particular acoustical environment.  Many singers will unconsciously choose to spread their vowels in a live acoustic requiring some vowel modifications to adjust and compensate for this acoustical influence upon vowel timbre qualities and the choir’s uniformity of vowels.  An acoustically dull rehearsal or performance room also influences singers and choirs and encourages them to create vocal tone that is often pressed, strident, less bright, and lacking in resonance.

A room with good reverberation allows the vocal tone to travel more easily than in a room that lacks reverberation, and this in turn encourages singers to use their voice and supported breath control more wisely.  An acoustically dull room makes demands upon a singer’s voice, use of breath, and selected tempi that often put the singer at a disadvantage in terms of healthy vocal production.  Typically, this type of acoustical environment encourages forced over-singing, resulting in a pressed laryngeal position that places great demands upon the musculature involved in the singing effort.

Acoustical environments require singers, choirs, and their choral directors to make decisions regarding tempi, articulations, and dynamics for successful singing and performance. A room that lacks good reverberation requires faster tempi so that the singers can sing more easily, hopefully creating vocal production that is healthy, buoyant, and supported with good use of breath.  In an acoustical setting with good reverberation, singers, choirs, and choral directors will often choose slower tempi so that the resulting sound is not muddy – this being especially important in polyphonic choral works and musical compositions which have a great deal of eighth-note and sixteenth-note subdivision.

As far as dynamics are concerned, it is much easier to sing softly in a room with a live acoustic that it is in a room with little or no reverberation.  Of course, it is also dangerously easy and tempting for singers to over-sing in a room with a live acoustic.

Singers must choose wisely when determining duration of note values, type of articulation (accented, staccato, stressed, sforzando, weighted, lengthened notes, melismatic runs, tenuto, etc.), clarity of diction, use of voiced and unvoiced consonants, and the dynamic level and intensity of the articulations, because all of these musical, vocal, and textual decisions are directly related to and greatly influenced by a room’s particular acoustical properties and response.

The acoustical properties of rehearsal rooms, sanctuary spaces, and performance halls also have a direct impact upon intonation and successful choral blend.  The placement of voices within a choir contributes to how singers hear themselves in relation to other singers in their own section and in relation to the entire choir.  Choir singers need to hear both the sound of their own voice and the sound of the other choir members.

Depending upon a particular room’s acoustics, I often move around individual singers within the choral ensemble as I try to match better their vocal timbre, sense of pitch, loudness or softness of voice, and intensity of vibrato to the other nearby singers, as well as to the room’s acoustical response.  The strong need for hearing one’s own voice, called the feedback, as well as hearing the sound of the rest of the choir, called the reference, is one of the more important acoustical factors in choir singing.

“Sten Ternström has investigated what he terms ‘Self-to-Other Ratio’ (SOR).  This phenomenon may ultimately relate to singer preference for spacing.  In a choral situation, a singer attends to two sounds:  the sound of his or her own voice and the sound of the choir as a whole.  Choral singers apparently have rather defined preferences for the balance between self-sound and other sound.  According to Ternström’s research, when the reference sound of the rest of the choir overpowers the feedback received from one’s own voice, as might happen in a choir singing with cramped spacing between and among singers, potentially all manner of chaos may ensue:  over-singing, intonation problems, and less than ideal vocal production.  Venue acoustics, of course, can exacerbate the problem still further, especially in absorbent and overly reverberant rooms.”¹

Because this is a constantly changing variable in our choral work, the placement of voices within a choral ensemble is one of the most important decisions a choral conductor must make.  I believe that choral singers perform at their best when they are positioned in SATB quartets with no two similar voice parts next to each other and with a fair amount of distance between singers so that they can better hear themselves as well as the other parts that make up the choral texture.  Spacing with distance between and amongst singers leads to more independent singing, improved vocal production, an ability to hear better, and a better awareness of intonation.

With more knowledge about these relationships, choir directors can be better equipped to optimize the conditions for performance or rehearsal or both (for example, by changing the spacing between singers, the placement and position of particular singers within the choral ensemble as well as placement of the entire choir, and/or by making alterations to the room’s absorption).

“Results of research into this area of choir acoustics suggest very practical applications for your choir.  Position your singers with sufficient space between them laterally, ideally 18-24 inches.  If possible, grant them circumambient space as well (the equivalent of a vacant row between all rows of the ensemble).  Since all choirs and all singing venues are not alike, experimentation may be necessary to determine optimal conditions for your choir.  Consider also that research results suggest that ‘weaker’ singers may at first resist spread spacing, especially circumambient spacing.  These singers may actually have to hear themselves for the first time.  ‘Average’ and ‘strong’ singers, however, appear to prefer spread spacing.  Male voices, particularly basses, may do fine with a little less spread spacing, especially if they are positioned in the center block of the choir.  Soprano voices, by contrast, will likely do well with as much spacing as feasible.  Let your singers assist in the process of experimenting with spacing.  Not all voices emit the same acoustical power, and some individual variation in spacing may work well [depending upon your particular choral singers].  Spacing your singers is not a magic technique to solve all choral sound problems.  But it may add a desirable nuance to choral sound, while improving intonation and blend.  Spacing, moreover, is a vocally non-intrusive strategy that is relatively easy to implement with smaller and medium sized ensembles.”²

The final placement of singers within the choir and within a particular room space has a strong and immediate impact upon the resulting choral blend and intonation.  And, it is hoped of course, that this final placement and arrangement of the singers within the choir and within the performance space will enhance

“…the ensemble effect or chorus effect; [which] arises when many voices and their reflections create a quasi-random sound of such complexity that the normal mechanisms of auditory localization and fusion are disrupted.  In a cognitive sense, the chorus effect can magically disassociate the sound from its sources and endow it with an independent, almost ethereal existence of its own.  The sensation of this extraordinary phenomenon, strongly perceived inside the choir, is one of the attractions of choral singing.”³

1 James Daugherty, Spacing Your Singers Can Make a Difference, Unison, 1999, p. 4.

2 ibid.

3 Sten Ternström, Acoustical Aspects of Choir Singing, Royal Institute of Technology, 1989, p. 10.

Adapted from ‘Acoustical Considerations for Church Choir Directors’, in The Chorister, December/January 2000.  Copyright © 2000 Choristers Guild.  Used by permission.  All rights reserved.

Bibliography for Further Reading:

Vance Breshears, Build for Sound:  Notes from a Consultant on How to Build Acoustics Into a Church, Your Church, Jan./Feb. 2000, Vol. 46, No. 1:  26-30.

James Daugherty, Spacing, Formation, and Choral Sound: Preferences and Perceptions of Auditors and Choristers, Journal of Research in Music Education, Fall 1999, Vol. 47, No. 3:  224-238.

James Daugherty, Spacing Your Singers Can Make a Difference, Unison, Washington State American Choral Directors Association Newsletter, Spring 1999, Vol. 12, No. 3:  3-4.

Duane R. Karna, Choir Acoustics, Unison, Washington State American Choral Directors Association Newsletter, Winter 1999, Vol. 12, No. 2:  7-9.

Duane R. Karna, and Sten Ternström,  “Choir.” Applied Music Psychology – Creative Strategies for Music Teaching and Learning.  Richard Parncutt and Gary McPherson, Editors.  London, England:  Oxford University Press, 2002.

David Lubman and Ewart Wetherill, Acoustics of Worship Spaces.  New York:  American Institute of Physics Inc., 1985.

Steven Powell, Choral Intonation:  More than Meets the Ear,  Music Educators Journal, May 1991:  40-43.

Scott R. Riedel, Acoustics in the Worship Space.  St. Louis, Missouri:  Concordia Publishing House, 1986.

Sten Ternström and Johann Sundberg, “Acoustics of Choir Singing” in Acoustics for Choir and Orchestra, Publication No. 52, Stockholm, Sweden:  The Royal Swedish Academy of Music, 1986:  12-22.

Sten Ternström and Johann Sundberg, How Loudly Should You Hear Your Colleagues and Yourself?, STL-QPSR, RIT, Stockholm, Sweden, 1984, Vol. 4:  16-26.

Sten Ternström and Johann Sundberg, ‘Intonation Precision of Choir Singers’ in Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1988, Vol. 84:  59-69.

Sten Ternström, Acoustical Aspects of Choir Singing,  Dissertation, Royal Institute of Technology, 1989.  Stockholm, Sweden:  RIT Library, 1990.

Sten Ternström, Hearing Myself with the Others – Sound Levels in Choral Performance Measured with Separation of Their Own Voice from the Rest of the Choir, Paper presented at the 22^nd Symposium:  Care of the Professional Voice, Philadelphia, PA., 1993.

Sten Ternström,  Kor Akustik,  Stockholm, Sweden:  Carl Gehrmans Musikforlag, 1987.

Walter Marzilli

choral conductor and teacher

This article appears here with the kind permission of ‘Lo Spettacolo’, published by Società Italiana degli Autori ed Editori.

A few centuries ago, in what might creatively be termed the history of human transformation, a truly remarkable phenomenon made its appearance. Ostensibly strictly confined to the world of music, it was destined nevertheless to have both social and ethical repercussions. In the 16^th century many small boys underwent castration in an attempt to create a new race of asexual angels blessed with celestial voices. From a strictly physiological perspective, the process involved an operation on a boy’s testicles before they began to secrete testosterone. Normally, the action of this hormone would bring about sexual maturity, and as a secondary sexual characteristic would affect the larynx, resulting in vocal change. With the release of the hormone into his system, the singer would no longer be able to reach the treble range. His voice would rapidly drop by an octave, moving towards one of the three final categories of bass, baritone or tenor. Without the drastic surgical intervention mentioned above, these changes would take place during the course of a few long years, and would be followed by a period of rest and retraining with the new, masculine voice. The surgeon’s skilled hand interrupted this long wait,[1] however, conferring a pseudo-female texture on the boy’s voice without harming it.[2] For better or for worse, the singer’s voice would retain this characteristic for the rest of his life.

Many such children came from the very poorest of backgrounds, often the latest additions to large families in serious financial difficulty, and their castration represented a chance for future riches in the eyes of some unscrupulous parents. For this reason, and owing to the tempting offers made by both court and ecclesiastical choirs, this cruel practice continued for about four centuries.[3] The goal was purely aesthetic: the creation of a new kind of voice that would far outclass those of the falsetto singers common at the time, who were simply healthy men imitating a female voice [falsetto comes from the Italian falsare, literally ‘to alter’ or ‘distort’].  

It is well known that women, where they were not banned entirely from doing so, met great difficulty wherever they tried to perform on stage,[4] just as when they attempted to sing in church choirs. A child’s voice, despite possessing its own unique texture and characteristics, could sometimes be used to substitute that of a woman. This was a way of bypassing all the obstacles associated with the existing social order, which any woman wishing to pursue an artistic career as a singer was sure to run into. But replacing women with children, while it resolved many problems, also created just as many new ones. These were linked to several factors, among them physical stature (especially with regard to the theatre), professional reliability and the fact that a child’s voice would only last until puberty, which meant a continual need to train new children. In short, it was necessary to find as convincing a substitute for the female voice as possible, while also effectively tackling the problems listed above. The solution that emerged was that of male castration. In order to obtain the illusion of a woman’s voice in a man’s body, which brought with it the added benefit of not having to break any social conventions, opera and choral music lovers of the time were willing to overlook certain shortcomings. For example, one of the nuove cantanti or ‘new singers’ filling the role of the lovesick, consumptive princess might, due to his unusual physical condition, stand head and shoulders above those around him and weigh in at something over 200 pounds.[5]

This short introduction should be enough to give some idea of the importance that has been attached to the ‘sound’ of the human voice throughout history. Almost every situation, no matter what its psychological or social significance, makes use of some form of vocal accompaniment. There is no need to list the endless occasions in which all people modify their voice, according to changes in time, place, or simply in their mood. The voice is as integral to our bodies as our arms or legs, but it is also the only part of us that can escape and reach far beyond the physical confines of the body. It is a metaphysical extension that goes further than the space occupied by mere flesh, revealing the most intangible aspect of our inner selves, a spiritual side that is as intimate as it is fleeting. It is, therefore, a priceless asset: a gift that can enrich our existence with the enormous possibilities it offers. One need only think of how easy it is to be transfixed by a voice on the radio, which all of us, unconsciously or otherwise, instantly associate with an imagined physical appearance. Somebody who is actually quite plain in appearance can be transformed into a fascinating figure simply through the power of the voice; the people we imagine when we listen to voices on the radio are the products of our idealised mental projections. This is why television, despite its much more physical, tangible nature, cannot replace radio: people will not allow it to destroy their artistic creations, incomparable masterpieces created by the power of imagination and preserved in a private mental archive.

The sheer number of possibilities for vocal communication means that so many different uses for the voice have developed, as diverse and numerous as the occasions in which they are employed. Every art that makes use of speech or song has given rise to a specific and continually evolving vocal technique, differing according to the social, cultural and aesthetic restrictions of the situation.[6] The developments that have taken place in every kind of singing are there for all to see, or rather are there for all to hear, especially in the field of popular music. For instance, a rich semi-tenor voice that made frequent use of the falsetto style, as was popular in the 1950s, would simply provoke amusement if imitated today. But behind the immutable passage of time and the accompanying inevitable changes in musical taste, a general pattern emerges which is worth taking into consideration. Observing today’s vast panorama of musical styles, it is clear that there has been a trend towards deeper female voices, in clear contrast with the more traditional high-pitched soprano. The preference now is for a strong, decisive sound, which is connected with connotations of virility. This is certainly the pattern that emerges when one listens carefully to contemporary popular music,[7] and even more so among child or teenage singers. In this sense, even karaoke can be an important analytical tool for studying the phonic tendencies of the general population, revealing an undeniable tendency towards the masculinisation of the female voice. A similar phenomenon is apparent in the field of opera, even if it seems to have been limited to a greater proportion of mezzo-sopranos among students on singing courses than was the case in the past. If anything, there is now a shortage of genuine low-contralto and bass voices.

In popular music, which has a greater impact on the market, and as such a greater impact on the social environment than more ‘cultured’ forms of music,[8] another clear pattern emerges: a particular style of vocal emission that we might describe as ‘throat voice’, in order to differentiate it from the more canonical styles known as ‘head voice’ and ‘chest voice’, is much more common. This is why, of all the characteristics of popular music, it is this ‘throat voice’ style that has come to define it, so much so that any departure from this style is now automatically labelled as ‘operatic’.

Normally, a ‘throat voice’ style of singing is simply the result of a lack of vocal technique in moving from one vocal register to another, what is known as the passaggio di registro. Such training would allow the singer to utilise the ‘head voice’ in order to produce higher notes.[9] Pop singers find themselves in a position in which they are expected to sing high notes, but without employing the passaggio di registro, the results of which would presumably bear too much resemblance to opera. This means that they are forced to invent their own techniques in order to hit the highest notes,[10] especially as they are well aware that their earnings are directly linked to their musical productivity.

Unless the performer in question is lucky enough to be anatomically suited to such vocal efforts, the most logical consequence is likely to be a hyperactivity of the vocal cords,[11] which can lead to the formation of nodules.[12] The voice then takes on a characteristic texture, easily recognisable to the trained ear, and which renders any further artistic use of it unlikely. The timbre deepens, sounds become huskier,[13] the length of time that the singer can exhale for becomes shorter, and medium-high notes become practically unreachable, or at the very least require a tremendous effort. Where it is not due to other physiological causes, this is the cause of the rasping, ‘smoky’ voices of some singers, from both Italy and elsewhere, who have managed to make of it a kind of trademark. The success of such singers bears out the popularity of this type of voice, which nonetheless lies beyond the normal critical boundaries of a purely aesthetic evaluation. It might be thought of as a phenomenon restricted to a successful elite, were it not for the amount of imitation it inspired. At times the imitation is unconscious, but in any case this vocal behaviour has spread to society at large, and across a large range of social groups.[14]

Current vocal trends are also connected with breathing techniques. Enlarged veins can often be seen not only on singers’ necks during performances, but also on those of people when they speak. If the moment in which the speaker draws breath is delayed due to the emphasis being put on the last words of an utterance, the organs involved in speech are placed under stress, and this can have an effect not only on the workings of these organs, but also on the qualities of the voice they produce. To go from recognising the results of such strain in one’s own voice to actively making use of them is not as much of a leap as one might suppose. There are now many female singers who make use of this type of vocal style. For the reasons mentioned above, clear, high sounds are the first to be lost while,[15] for the same reasons, deeper sounds are emphasised. Hyperactivity of the vocal cords can therefore be considered to be a limited cause of deepening female voices, but other, different factors can also result in a similar phenomenon.

The well-attested increase in average height, for example, may have had a certain influence on the trend towards deeper voices, in both men and women. Tall people owe their stature to an overactive pituitary gland, which controls the growth and development of the body. The length of the vocal cords is also proportional to the growth of the rest of the body, a consequence of the lengthening of the thyroid cartilage.[16] In tall people this tends to be more pronounced, allowing them to produce deeper, low-pitched sounds.[17] This can also be seen in the physical qualities that typically distinguish bass singers from tenors; the former tend to be tall, long-limbed, lean and vigorous,[18] with a fast metabolism, while tenors are generally shorter, with different physical characteristics, and are wont to put on weight due to their slower metabolism.[19]

Although it may at first seem a subject area that has little to do with the masculinisation of the female voice, it is worth lingering for a moment to consider the existence of the pineal gland, which is situated in the brain. Despite being buried deep in the cranium, one of its qualities is photosensitivity.[20] Among its other functions is the regulation of the pituitary gland, responsible for growth as well as controlling the output of testosterone by the Leydig cells. The fact that it is sensitive to light could, indirectly, mean that the pineal gland has a bearing on the subject of this essay. Through prolonged light exposure,[21] the pineal gland can be induced to stimulate prematurely the pituitary gland. The result of this would be the precocious secretion of testosterone which, as was noted previously, brings about changes in the male voice and triggers the process that leads to sexual and vocal maturity.[22]

It must also be taken into consideration that the unknowing consumption of hormones from increasingly rich and complex foods, often treated or altered through the use of hormonal substances that encourage growth and enhance appearance, including both meat and non-meat products,[23] can contribute to the precocious onset of these physical changes. Indeed, the consumption of these hormones has a direct effect on the growth of certain parts of the anatomy, and as such has a direct impact on the present investigation. The larynx, the organ that is responsible for producing sound, is also classed as a secondary sexual organ, and is extremely sensitive to the effects of hormones in the body.[24]

Once sexual maturity has been reached, teenagers find themselves in a whole series of new situations, connected to various different factors, and analysing them too closely would cause the present investigation to stray into many other fields. There is one particular area, however, that it is worth examining in more detail: the way in which adolescents show that they have reached their goal, which in their eyes at least is of huge social importance. Although perfectly evident to the individual involved, the physical proof of this alteration will, for obvious reasons, normally remain private. It is at this stage that a whole series of frequently exaggerated behavioural patterns begin to emerge, through which adolescents of both sexes seek to display the changes that they have undergone. Clothes, facial expressions, makeup, cigarettes, and in some extreme cases drugs, can all be interpreted as attempts to show off one’s maturity through messages that reach beyond the confines of the body itself, but at the same time are not a part of it. But there is one thing that truly belongs to us, that represents our own personal identity and is at the same time inextricably bound to it, that is able to send clear messages out into our surroundings and is the only part of our bodies which, as mentioned previously, is able to give shape to our inner selves: our voice[25] There is no better way, therefore, to present our own self-image to those around us.

The connection between these facts and the masculinisation of the female voice becomes apparent as soon as one considers the role models available to an adolescent girl who wishes to highlight her new status as a woman. Observing the situation as an outsider, and attempting to remain as objective as possible, it is quite clear that the image of the mature woman continually transmitted by advertisements, films, television and the media in general is one of confidence and charm, accompanied by a certain hint of aggressiveness. The other side of the female character that receives particular emphasis is that of athleticism, tenacity and courage, all on clear display in films that feature female leads. It is easy to see how impressionable young women could be influenced by, and attempt to identify themselves with, such role models. This hypothesis would certainly be in keeping with the fact that the vast majority of smokers smoke their first cigarette during puberty, the stage in life when they feel it most necessary to emphasise their own new-found maturity. In the same way it is easy to see how a natural tendency towards deeper, more virile voices has developed, as it is seen to offer those qualities that are instrumental to a woman’s success in modern society. A high, clear voice would seem absurd.

Thyroid dysfunction, already mentioned above, may also have played a considerable role in the reduced clarity of women’s voices.[26] According to recent endocrine research, an extremely high percentage of women (more than 70%) are affected by abnormalities in thyroid function, involving the appearance of nodules on the thyroid gland. The presence of these nodules[27] can lead to a notable increase in the volume of the gland, situated next to the base of the larynx,[28] just beneath the thyroid cartilage. Their location may impede the normal mobility of the larynx,[29] inhibiting the capacity of the vocal cords to vibrate and thus reducing the number of vibrations relative to airflow. Taking into consideration the acoustic laws that govern sound production, this condition too would lead to lower-pitched, deeper sounds.

It would appear that we find ourselves once again in the midst of a vocal transition similar to that of the castrati, but one that is working in the opposite direction: rather than men striving for female voices, women are trying to render their voices more masculine, even if this time, luckily, the transformation is a bloodless one. In actual fact, if one were to investigate more thoroughly, an attentive ear would also discover a contrary trend in the male voice, as higher pitched, clearer sounds offer greater penetrative power.[30] But this is an area of study for future research papers. For the time being, it is enough to remember that, from a physiological point of view, the larynx, the source of the voice, is classed among the secondary sexual organs. With this in mind, it may not be too fanciful to posit a possible parallel between the mutability of human vocal identity and that of our sexual identity, which is every bit as mobile. 

[1] This was certainly not surgery as we might expect it today: carried out in secret due to the prohibitions in place, with scant regard for hygiene, and methods that bore a closer resemblance to butchery than to modern medicine. Indeed, it was due to their manual ability with knives and razors that butchers and barbers were apparently chosen to carry out these operations rather than surgeons, who were in any case much fussier and more demanding.

[2] There are no doubts, though, about the existence or extent of the psychological trauma; the lives of castrati were deeply marked by their experience. Neither great artistic success nor wealth, which were in any case only ambitions when the operation was carried out, could ever erase such a disturbing episode from their memories.

[3] The last castrati singers of the Sistine Chapel remained there until shortly after the appointment of Monsignor Lorenzo Perosi as Papal choirmaster in 1898. In 1902, it was decreed that no more castrati would be taken on. Those already in service continued until retirement. Among them was Alessandro Moreschi, who ended his castrato career in 1913.

[4] Readers are reminded that actors of the time were held in such ill repute that they were buried outside the city walls. From this one can well imagine what was thought of women who worked in the theatre, whether as singers or actors.

[5] This abnormal growth was one of the consequences of castration. Along with testosterone, the production of another important substance called inhibin was also interrupted. Inhibin counterbalances the effects of the pituitary gland, which controls growth and development of the body. It must be said that ever since then we have become accustomed to see Mimì, though supposedly dying of consumption, still decidedly ‘well-upholstered’.

[6] Actors’ voices have changed greatly in the last forty years, to the extent that a black and white film would be unrecognisable if it were redubbed today. The same process can be observed in theatre and opera.

[7] This term is used in as objective a sense as possible; questions regarding the true artistic value or cultural importance of ‘popular’ music falls outside the remit of this investigation.

[8] The use of this adjective hints at a degree of elitism, but here is intended merely to imply a certain kind of music.

[9] The passaggio di registro creates a homogeneity of vocal timbre in the transition between lower and higher notes, allowing for a smoother and more solid vocal performance across a singer’s range. Failure to use this technique is what gives all pop music tracks one of their common features; there is a notable difference between the ‘verse’, normally sung in a whispered, uncertain voice in the medium-low vocal range, and the ‘chorus’, where the singer reveals their perhaps unexpected talents by employing powerful, high notes.

[10] As with opera music, in popular music the high notes are the greatest crowd-pleasers, and as such are highly sought-after.

[11] This hyperactivity is due to the effort of emitting sound in physiologically anomalous conditions.

[12] This term refers to the tough swellings that can form on the edges of the vocal cords when they are placed under prolonged strain. It has been shown that the condition is common among teachers, particularly those working in primary and middle schools. Their voices are subjected to an abnormal level of strain, as they have to use them so often. Overuse leads to chafing between the edges of the vocal cords, and to the formation of actual callouses at the point of contact.

[13] This term is used to describe a voice that is accompanied by an audible breath sound, which is caused by the fact that some of the air passing through the vocal cords is not vibrated, and as such not transformed into sound. This in turn is due to the hardened callouses that prevent the cords from vibrating freely, meaning they cannot transform the current of air into sound waves. 

[14] The normal tendency to emulate the style of famous people, especially in the case of popular music, finds particular expression in the widespread phenomenon of karaoke, which remains popular in many countries, even if it is now a little passé here in Italy. The imitative component of karaoke is its most prominent feature, and as such those who engage in it find themselves closely copying the vocal style, for better or worse, of the original artist.

[15] In producing these sounds, the vocal cords take on their flattest shape, caused by the movement of the arytenoid cartilage. The same principle is at work in all string instruments, where the thinnest strings (in relation to their length) produce the highest, clearest notes.

[16] More commonly known as the Adam’s apple, the thyroid cartilage is one of four that make up the larynx, together with the cricoid, arytenoid and epiglottic. The cartilaginous shield of the Adam’s apple protects the vocal cords, which are stretched between the thyroid and the arytenoid cartilages.

[17] The same occurs in string instruments, where longer strings produce deeper sounds (where string thickness does not change).

[18] Though they are not necessarily slim, especially as they grow older.

[19] A recent theory has hypothesised that sound production can be improved by the presence of fat deposits in the laryngeal region. This would appear to contradict the fact that stouter singers tend to be tenors or sopranos, with high, clear voices. In the case of sopranos the vocal cords are forced to complete over 1,000 oscillations per second (soprano F5: 1396.9 p/s), an action which one might expect would be slowed down by the weight of fatty deposits next to the cords. If one considers that a small droplet of mucous on the vocal cords brings about an immediate reduction in voice function, it should be very clear just how precarious an opera singer’s success really is. In the moment of sound production the singer’s voice depends on a very delicate equilibrium within the voice box, and the smallest additional weight can be enough to break it.

The presence of fat in the chest area is different, in that it essentially contributes to the production of medium-low notes. Fat in this part of the body, if seen as a means of transmitting vibration, can increase the resonant capacity of the chest, as this capacity is directly proportional to the molecular density of the means of transmission. This is why sound travels five times faster through water than through air.

[20] More than 20 different hormones have been isolated from among its secretions. These are to be important for many vital bodily functions, and not only neurological. It is closely involved with the development of the secondary sexual organs, among them the larynx, lynchpin of the vocal organs. The pineal gland also regulates the transition between periods of sleep and wakefulness.

[21] In reality we spend most of our time indoors rather than outside. This explains why we are more exposed to powerful, fixed light sources, such as electric lighting, especially when one considers that lights in workplaces are often left on even in the daytime. These lights typically illuminate the entire working area, offering no opportunity of finding ‘shade’.

[22] This may explain the fact that in Italy, as in other countries that enjoy a sunny Mediterranean climate, Knabenchöre (treble voice choirs) have always been a rarity, limited to a few particular institutions (e.g. the Sistine Chapel and Milan Cathedral). Conversely, such choirs were always common in the countries of northern Europe. Sexual maturity and the vocal changes that accompany it evidently occurred later here, as the pineal gland was less stimulated by the harder climate and more overcast skies. The longer duration of the treble voice thus accorded greater stability to the Knabenchor in terms of its membership, encouraging its continuation and diffusion.

[23] One proof of this abnormal hormonal presence in the human body is the extremely elevated percentage of women who suffer from thyroid problems. In the last few years thyroid dysfunction has also been affecting an increasing number of men.

[24] Female opera singers are often known to avoid performing during their menstrual cycle, because of the changes that the larynx undergoes in this period.

[25] Speaking on the telephone with someone we know is much like using a videophone, in that the sound of their voice alone gives the sensation that they are physically present.

[26] It is to be remembered that the term ‘thyroid dysfunction’ refers to the thyroid gland, and not to the thyroid cartilage.

[27] They can appear in large numbers and reach considerable size, to such an extent that they are easily visible to the naked eye.

[28] In normal conditions, the thyroid volume of a woman who lives far from the coast may be as much as twice that of a woman living by the sea, due to the shortage of iodine. In these cases, a further increase in volume can cause highly visible results.

[29] This is often due to the fact that, while the thyroid is composed of a soft, pliable material, the nodules are more solid, and often coated with a kind of chalky plaster, with which the body tries to defend itself from and imprison these foreign bodies.

[30] The difficulty of finding deep bass voices was mentioned above.

Translated from the Italian by Ross Nelhams, UK

Edited by Gillian Forlivesi Heywood, Italy

by Rita Fucci-Amato, conductor and postdoctoral researcher, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil

Choirs can be understood as organizations, because they have people, material resources and a management function that organizes and directs all activities to the provision of a cultural service or product. The cooperative aspect is intrinsically linked to the nature of choral singing and constitutes its essential point as an organization. This takes on a special dimension viewed from Chester Barnard’s perspective[1]. This pioneer author identified the main function of the executive as creating and communicating a common proposal. In this sense, a maestro is closer to a manager, as a conductor, is a leader capable of creating and maintaining a polyphonic collective harmony, the basis of the artistic and music educative work developed mainly in amateur choirs. The cooperative note characterizing this network that constitutes a ‘choral’ organization was described by the Brazilian maestro Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959):

Collective singing, with its power of socialization, predisposes the individual to lose, whenever necessary, the egoistic notion of excessive individuality, integrating himself/herself in the community, valuing in his/her spirit the idea of the need to renounce and the discipline to face up to the imperatives of social collectivity, favoring, in summary, this notion of human solidarity […].[2]

By meeting the norms of the choir, by dedicating themselves to the learning of music during rehearsals and ‘extra hours’, the individuals support the group by seeking for common goals, thus creating a group charisma, and thus conflicting sentiments and obstacles are removed. This musical practice develops a sense of group union through common scope and values, in that individual predispositions and activities are channeled into an artistic collective production governed by rigorous discipline, serious study and the dedication of everyone. Choral singing is a common example of teamwork and represents a musical practice developed and widely known among the most different cultures and ethnic groups. Being a group pursuing musical learning, vocal development, interpersonal integration and social inclusion, the choir is a space constituted by different social and teaching-learning relationships; it demands from the conductor a number of competences and abilities not only concerning the technical musical preparation, but also in reference to the management and direction of a team that looks for motivation, education, culture and new aesthetic and social experiences. A choir has different levels of action and promotes individual integration in various dimensions, from personal motivation to interpersonal relationships, from aesthetic expression to political symbolism and communitarian role.

By their power and competence to guide these complex organizations, maestros are a very common example, in managerial literature and discourse, of efficient leadership, based on hearing and teaching, on learning and cooperation. In fact, maestros are selected by managers as the perfect example of management, but in a much romanticized vision: the maestro on the podium, the theatricality of his gestures, the baton …

On the one hand, in amateur musical groups, markedly in amateur choirs, the managerial work of conductors is much wider behind the stage, in the day-to-day tasks like networking, searching for partners and sponsors, marketing, organization of agendas and rehearsals rooms, etc – not to mention the serious motivation that choral conductors have to develop and cultivate in groups where participation is open to all and voluntary, but where nevertheless there must be musical results. It is necessary to produce such a level of pleasure that it compensates for the hard technical work of repeating and correcting the musical phrases, paying attention to details in rhythm, breathing and dynamics. On the other hand, in professional choirs – as in professional orchestras – maestros are increasingly being challenged in their abilities to create a good personal climate, managing the human relations in teamwork and engaging in socially and culturally sustainable practices involving the community. All that reality, which the conductors know only too well, reveals a deeper dimension in our managerial roles, not synthesized in the mere caricature of commanding a group by ‘simple’ gestures on a podium.

Choirs are paradigms of teamwork and motivation and examples of learning and knowledge organizations, while conductors are symbols of leadership and efficient management … “Despite the persuasive power of these images, the real face of the maestros’ job and of musical organizations in their day-to-day life cannot be revealed unless we open our eyes to their work behind the stage and before the concerts.

While managers base their perspectives on an idealized – usually authoritarian – view of the work of conducting, maestros need to perform a lot of managerial tasks in order to turn the artistic goal into reality, but among traditional conductors this pragmatic but indispensable aspect of their work is typically despised. As almost all maestros need to be managers for conducting the collective musical work, the consequence is that we learn only by doing, by trial and error. Viewed from this angle, this scenario suggests that a deeper and clearer analysis of this universe – management tasks inserted in musical conducting – is very welcome. This is the premise of my research.

I am developing a postdoctoral research project on the theme ‘The work of the maestro as a manager and the organizational perspective of choral singing: interdisciplinary contributions for managers and conductors’. This project is based at the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil, and is funded by the São Paulo State Research Foundation (FAPESP: www.fapesp.br/en). In a first phase of the research, I studied cases of Brazilian choirs and choral conductors, accompanying the work of some groups and musicians, and interviewing them. In a second phase, I am asking for choral singers and maestros from all over the world to complete a questionnaire about how their choirs are managed and about the organizational difficulties that they face. Many singers and maestros from many countries – like Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Mexico, Argentina, England, the USA, Canada, etc. – have already contributed their answers. But the panel is not complete, and this call for contributions, through the International Choral Bulletin, has the intention of extending this rich panel of choral activity to different realities and countries. The questionnaire, both for conductors and singers, is available in three languages and can be accessed by the following links:

• http://goo.gl/N10jI (in English);

• http://goo.gl/62jcu (in Spanish);

• http://goo.gl/GX9Bp (in Portuguese).

The questionnaires will be available until June, 2012. Conductors and choirs taking part in this research will be cited in a special acknowledgement list which will be published on the website http://choralmanagement.blogspot.com/. This website will be enriched through time by the publications (like papers in journals and conference proceedings) analyzing the results of the research. The individual answers concerning singers, choirs and maestros will be displayed anonymously. All these data will be focused on theoretical bases using headings such as: the manager’s job, human resource management, leadership, motivation, organizational culture, organizational learning, etc. Therefore, through the answers of singers and conductors it will be possible to propose new models and approaches to the difficult – and necessary – activity of managing choral organizations. Thank you in advance for your contribution!

[1] Barnard, C. (1966), The Functions of the Executive. Harvard University Press, Boston.

[2] Villa-Lobos, H.: Villa-Lobos por ele mesmo, in Ribeiro, J. C. (ed.), O pensamento vivo de Villa-Lobos. Martin Claret, São Paulo (1987), p. 87.

Edited by Irene Auerbach, UK